In a random sample of 616 middle aged, middle class community citizens it was found that ACOA's were more likely to drink for coping reasons, although the amount of alcohol consumption did not significantly differ from non-ACOA's. It was also found that female ACOA's reported higher levels of depression and lower self esteem than female non-ACOA's. Over all ACOA's had lower self esteem and more depression than non-ACOA's. ( Domenico, D., Windle,M. 1993).
MaGaha,. (1993) showed that persons raised in alcoholic and drug addicted homes are more likely to exhibit anger and a variety of acting out behavior and are more likely to have contact with the criminal justice system than those not raised in that sort of home. The sample included 43 adult felons on probation from alcoholic homes and 53 from non-alcoholic homes. Family violence, abuse, delinquency, and addiction were common among the ACOA'S. Additionally, low self esteem and substantial anger were prominently found among the ACOA.
In a study of adolescent children of alcoholics social support and self esteem were evaluated and measured. The subjects were 296 adolescent and their parents; 145 families had an alcoholic parent , 151 families were non-alcoholic. This study found evidence contrary to ACOA self esteem scoring. It found no correlation between the alcoholic status of the parent and the level of self self esteem. Barrera, Chassin, and Rogosch, (1993) cite the possible resilience of youth as a possible natural elevator of self esteem.
In a study of 139 undergraduate students by Williams, and Corrigan (1992), measures of anxiety, depression, social avoidance, and self esteem were administered. It was found that children of substance abusing parents had lower self esteem and were more socially anxious than those from non-abusing parents. It was also found that the children of abusers were 66% more likely to abuse substances and have higher and more frequent levels of depression. The study identified social support networks such as non-abusing families, friends, and organizations as reducers of depression and as fortification to self esteem. The work by O'Rourke, (1990) also cites peer relationships, exploring feelings, and developing coping skills as methods of off-setting depression and building self esteem. This article also discourages isolation and encourages family progress as a means of regenerating the over all self esteem of the family.
Gross, and McCaul, (1990) compared urban adolescent children in substance abusing, including alcohol, and non-substance abusing families. Fifty four adolescents(12-17 years) with positive family histories for substance abuse were compared with 54 adolescents of non abusing families. Thirty-four of the children of abusers were considered "at risk" for becoming a substance abuser, 6 of the control group were "at risk". A survey of self esteem and depression were administered . The children of abusers were found to be more depressed with lower self esteem than the children of non-abusers. Additionally, girls were found to be more depressed with lower self esteem than boys.
In the study by Potter, and Williams, (1991) A measure was developed to examine children's roles in alcoholic families. One hundred forty ACOA's were used to develop the instrument. Among the measures self esteem is evaluated. The normative results show consistently lower scores in self esteem for female ACOA. One hundred thirty-eight non-ACOA's were used as a control. Other portions of the scale , including depression ,were predictive of low self esteem.
In the work by Swartzenberg, and Swartzenberg, (1990), Adult children of alcoholics were evaluated after a short-term group psychotherapy. Fourteen female ACOA's were given a battery of tests. Therapeutic issues of denial, anger, guilt, control, trust, and shame were addressed. Comparing pre and post treatment scores it was found that while the levels of depression rose among most of the women , levels of self esteem tended to remain low by comparison to a non-ACOA sample.
Churchill, Broida, and Nicholson, (1990) worked on locus of control and self esteem in adult children of alcoholics. A Jackson Personality Inventory was used to assess self esteem. A relationship was found between parental alcoholism and low self esteem. The battery was given to 497 college students. Female ACOA's were found to have lower self esteem than male ACOA's.
Bush, Ballard, and Fremouw, (1995) worked with attributional style, depressive features, and self esteem in ACOA's. Fifty seven 18-24 year olds ACOA's and 100 non-ACOA's took part in the study. The Beck Depression inventory was used in the battery. ACOA's had lower self esteem and higher depression by scale and frequency. Women had higher scores of depression than men.
Bosworth, and Burke, (1994) Examined problems that ACOA's have related to campus authorities across the country. Eighteen states participated and 45 institutions responded. Among the list of authority infractions a list of 28 problem characteristics were identified. Problems with intimate relationships, anger, trust, and self esteem were some of the addressed items. They found lower levels of self esteem in students who had an alcoholic parent than students that did not have an alcoholic parent. Hadley, Holloway, and Mallinckrodt, (1993) attempted to find common aspects of self representation in the offspring of dysfunctional families. They found no significant differences between adult children of alcoholics and adults from families who were not dysfunctional. Dysfunctional was defined to include alcoholism. These findings are to the expected contrary and are included in this search to illustrate the incongruence of findings surrounding this topic.
The work of Hinson, Becker, Handal, and Katz, (1993) investigated the difference between treatment seeking ACOA's and non-treatment seeking ACOA's. The sample consisted of 83 non-treatment seekers, 51 treatment seekers, 86 controls, and 90 help seeking controls. Questionnaires and exams were administered, Over all lower self esteem was correlated with ACOA's and particularly with non-treatment seeking ACOA's. Depression was also correlated with low self esteem.
In A critique of an Adult Children of Alcoholics index Gondolf and Ackerman (1993) found that from a conference sample of 328 rejection, impulsiveness, inconsistency, and deliberation were correlated with being ACOA. Additionally mild depression and low self esteem correlated with being the child of an alcoholic, They found the instrument to have an overall correct classification 67% of the time and a reliability of r=.80. The sample used college students.
Post, Webb, and Robinson (1991) examined the relationship between sex ,self esteem and anxiety among ACOA's and non-ACOA's. Thirteen male and forty-five female undergraduate students were used. It was found that there was no significant relationship between anxiety and sex but there was a relationship between sex and self esteem in the female ACOA's. There was a relationship between this group an anxiety. Currier, and Aponte(1991) found similar results in their work with sexual dysfunction in female ACOA's. Of the 30 female ACOA's and 30 female non-ACOA's from 25-53 years it was found that the ACOA group had significantly lower levels of self esteem and greater sexual dysfunction. They also found a greater incidence of drinking behavior among the ACOA group.
The work by McNeill, and Gilbert (1991) examined college students with alcoholic parents , locus of control, and self esteem. One hundred twenty one students were given the Beck Depression Inventory, and The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale among the battery. Depression positively correlated with low self esteem. Both of these positively correlated with having an alcoholic parent. To the contrary, Dodd, and Roberts (1994) also used the Beck Depression Inventory sampling 60 ACOA's and 243 non-ACOA's. They suggest that problems (depression) existing among ACOA's might be due to factors other than the alcoholic status of the parent. They cite self fulfilling prophecy and attention seeking behavior as possible alternative compounding factors.
Finally, Sheridan, and Green surveyed 55 ACOA's receiving treatment, 33 ACOA's not receiving treatment , and 39 adults from non-ACOA families. Common to the ACOA's were control issues ,trust, expression and low self esteem. The ACOA group had a whole had lower self esteem than the non-ACOA group.
The purpose of this study is to determine if being the child of an alcoholic increases the likelihood of being depressed or having lower self esteem than the child of a non alcoholic. Further variables of age and sex will be defined by their effect on depression and self esteem individually and in combination.