<body bgcolor="#FFFFC4" link="#000000" vlink="#000000" alink="#000000"> <center> <h1> <font face="Arial"> The Positive Effects of Exercise on Depression</font></h1> <font face="Arial"> Nancy P. Haller<br> Missouri Western State College<br> April 30, 1996<br> </font> </center> <hr><CENTER> <h1><STRONG><font face="Arial">Abstract</font></STRONG></h1> </center> <font face="Arial"> One hundred and seventy-nine students at Missouri Western State College participated in this quasi-experimental 2x3 mixed-model factorial, designed to look at the effects of a controlled exercise program on depression. Past research has found significant reduction in depression using aerobic and anaerobic forms of exercise. A pre-test survey, which measured depression, was administered to both the experimental and control groups prior to any treatment. After 6 weeks of exercise a post-test was given to determine degree of depression. Data from both scales were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA.</font> <HR> <CENTER> <H1><STRONG><font face="Arial">Introduction</font></STRONG></H1> </CENTER> <font face="Arial"> More than 15 million Americans are affected with symptoms of depression each year, which represents the most prominent mental disorder in our society (Zwiefel, 1992). Recent statistics show that more than 41 million adults will have a mental disorder at some time during their lives (CQ Researcher, 1993). Furthermore, the costs associated with mental illness are estimated to be more than 40 billion dollars annually (Seefeldt, Vern, & Vogel, 1986).</font> <P> <font face="Arial"> Depression is found in the<U> Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders </U>(4th ed. 1994) under Axis I, below the classification of mood disorders. Depression can be perceived as a disruption in the progress of a person's emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning. In general, the emotions commonly exhibited during depression are sadness, anxiety, guilt, and anger. Physical changes that take place during depression are sleep disorders, constipation, menstrual irregularities, weight fluctuations, eating disorders, fatigue, pain, and diminished sexual drive. Behavioral changes may be withdrawal from social contact, a display of psychomotor retardation, a tendency to become agitated and restless, and in extreme cases exhibit hallucinations. Certain cognitive alterations can also be experienced such as negative self-concepts, pessimistic thoughts, feelings of helplessness and/or hopelessness, and an inability to concentrate or make decisions. Depression can be either reactive, which is precipitated by some event, or endogenous meaning that it is biological in nature or that one is predisposed to being depressed.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Studies on depressed patients have revealed that aerobic exercises are as effective as other forms of psychotherapy, and that the exercises have an antidepressive effect on patients with mild to moderate forms of depression ( Thomas, Campagna, Ritvo, & Birnie, 1993; Martinsen, 1989, 1993, 1994; Bosscher, 1993). North et al (1990) conducted a meta-analysis on 80 studies and calculated 290 effect sizes. He found that all groups experienced antidepressant effects from exercise with the greatest benefits for older subjects and males, although the gender difference was not significant. He also found that both aerobic and non-aerobic forms of exercise were associated with reduced depression.</font> <P> <font face="Arial"> The purpose of this study is to investigate whether or not aerobic and/or anaerobic exercise has any effect on lowering depression rating within the educational milieu.</font> <HR> <CENTER> <H1><STRONG><font face="Arial">Methods</font></STRONG></H1> </CENTER> <H2><U><font face="Arial">Participants</font></U></H2> <font face="Arial"> The participants chosen for this study were from Missouri Western State College . The experimental group were 2 physical education classes (PED 101). The PED 101 classes were chosen because students are required to fulfill a lab requirement of either an aerobic or anaerobic condition 3 times a week. The control groups were 2 introductory psychology classes (PSY 101). During pretest participants in the PSY 101 classes were asked if they are currently enrolled in a PED 101 class, those responding affirmative were eliminated from the control group. 173 participants were pretested; 74 males and 99 females, 157 participants remained for the posttest.</font> <H2><U><font face="Arial">Materials</font></U></H2> <font face="Arial"> A pen-and-paper survey was developed by the researcher to determine the level of depression. Questions on the survey were chosen using the DSM (4th ed.) as a criterion relating to depressive symptoms. Content validity was established by Dr.'s Richard Cluff and James Bargar, both are clinical psychologists and professors at Missouri Western State College.</font> <H2><U><font face="Arial">Procedure</font></U></H2> <font face="Arial"> Permission was sought from the instructors and appointments made to do a pretest survey on participants prior to any treatment conditions. Instructions to the participants were that they are involved in research that looks at the effects of exercise on the students' emotional states. The surveys were administered to both groups within a week of each other to control for history effects. The experimental group then participated in either an aerobic or anaerobic condition for approximately 6 weeks. A posttest was then administered to all groups.</font> <HR> <CENTER> <H1><STRONG><font face="Arial">Results</font></STRONG></H1> </CENTER> <font face="Arial"> A 2X3 mixed design ANOVA was performed looking at the effects of (1) exercise on depression, (2) depression between groups across time, and (3) whether or not there was an interaction between variables. Results were not significant F (2,116) = .34, p>.05.</font> <HR> <CENTER> <H1><STRONG><font face="Arial">Discussion</font></STRONG></H1> </CENTER> <font face="Arial"> Because there was no statistically significant correlation found between exercise and depression we cannot conclude, from this study, that exercise has any positive effect on depression. One problem with the study may be that the power of the test used to measure depression was not sensitive enough, for example, in both groups, there were no differences between pretest and posttest mean scores 7.77 & 7.67 respectively. It maybe possible to replicate the study using an established test for depression such as Beck's Depression Inventory to attain the expected results.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Another possible factor which may have influenced the results were the number of students who dropped out of the control group, it is possible that those who dropped the class may have been the most depressed and therefore the results may have been significant had they remained for the posttest.</font> <P> <HR> <CENTER> <H1><STRONG><font face="Arial">References</font></STRONG></H1> </CENTER> <font face="Arial"> American Psychiatric Association. (1994). <U> Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders </U>(4th ed.) Washington, DC: Author.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Bosscher, R.J.,& Owen, D.R. (1993). Running and mixed physical exercise with depressed psychiatric patients.<U>International Journal of Sport Psychology,24,</U>170-184.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Falls, H.B. (1980).<U> Essentials of Physical Fitness. </U> Philadelphia: Saunders College.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Martinsen, E.W., Hoffort, A.,& Solberg, O. (1989). Comparing aerobic and nonaerobic forms of exercise in the treatment of clinical depression: A randomized trial.<U> Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30,</U> 324-331. Martinsen, E.W. (1993). Therapeutic implications of exercise for clinically anxious and depressed patients.<U> International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24,</U> 185-199.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Martinsen, E.W. (1994). Physical activity and depression: clinical experience. <U> Acta Psychiatrica-Scandinica, suppl 377,</U> 23-27.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> McCann, I.L.,& HolmesD.S. (1984). Influence of Aerobic Exercise on Depression.<U> Journal of Personality Social Psychology, 46,</U> 1142-1147.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> North, T.C.,McCullagh, P.,& Tran, Z.V. (1990). The effect of exercise on depression.<U> Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 18,</U> 379-415.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Seefeldt, V.& Vogel, P> (1986).<U> Physical activity and well-being.</U> Reston, Virginia: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance.</font><P> <font face="Arial"> Zweifel, J. (1992, May11). Banish the Blues with Exercise.<U> Newsweek,</U> A26-28.</font><P> <HR> <font face="Arial"> <a HREF="http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/">Back to MWSU Psychology Research Page</a><br> <a HREF="http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/psy302.html">Back to PSY302 Research Page</a> </font> </BODY>