Procrastination is defined by a lack of self-regulating performance, putting off work that could be under one's control (Tuckman,1991). Students frequently come across this problem in their academic careers. A common form of procrastination is waiting until the last minute to turn in papers or to study for an exam (Milgram,1993).
What are the reasons for procrastination according to students? The most frequent answers reported are poor time management, task aversiveness, and fear of failure, with the fear of failure accounting for 49.4% of the explanations (Milgram, 1993).
Behavioral procrastination is demonstrated by the tendency to delay a task to avoid threats to self-esteem, threat of failure, and a disregard for aversive tasks (Ferrari & Emmons,1995). There is a positive correlation between procrastination and low self control; the procrastinators are more interested with the desire for immediate pleasure.
One negative correlate with procrastination is the frequency of self reinforcement/reward; procrastinators do not reward themselves for an accomplished project as much an a non-procrastinator. Ferrari and Emmons (1993) go on to state that procrastinators may have low self esteem; they may believe they lack the ability to be successful in their task which leads to the delay in completing the project. Through studies by Tuckman (1991), this has been shown to be correct; students who describe themselves as procrastinators also tend to describe themselves as people who doubt their capabilities.
Procrastination is found to be a trait rather than task or course specific state characteristic. If you procrastinate in one area, you are just as likely to do the same in another area (Milgram,1993).
It is necessary to recognize procrastination and then do something about it. Procrastination on a larger scale could lead to total failure. The student must be ready to come to terms with procrastination to succeed in school. Milgram (1993) suggests three levels of guidance for students. First there must be intervention workshops set up for all students, to aid them in recognizing procrastination. Secondly, there must be secondary interventions for at risk students, and finally there must be counseling provided to students who may damage their academic career due to procrastination.
2 X 2 ANOVA F (1,79) =1.48, p>.05 indicating a non-siginifuicant realationship between procrastination and rural or urban schools.
2 X 2 ANOVA F (1, 79), p> .05 indicating a non-significant interaction between procratsination, educational level, and urban or rurla schools.
The mean score on the procrastination scale for urban high school students was 48 while the mean score for rural students was 50. The total mean for all high school studenats was 49, refer tothe graph.
One limitation of this study was the low numbr of participants(93). More participants are needed to have statistically reliable research. The results from this study may not be generalized to different populations, such as honors classes or college prep schools.
For future research on procratstination, more participlants will be utalized to ascertain gernder differences. Another research idea could be to compare college graduates to people who have never attended college. An additional research concept would be to compare across different professions to discover if workers in certain career areas are more likely to procrastinate.
To educators and parents,hte lack f varience in procrastination levels between high school students and college students should be cause for worry. More education and guidance is necessary to prevent procrastination and its correlates: fear of failure, poor time management, and low self-esteem (Milgram, 1993). Results from future studies may be used to create teh necessary programs to prevent procrastination in students.
Ferrari, J. & Emmons, R (1995) Methods of procrastination and their relation to self control and self reinforcement. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality,10:1 135 - 141.
Milgram, N., Batori, B., & Mowrer, D. (1992) Correlates of academic procrastination. Journal of School Psychology, 31 487 - 500.
Tuckman, B. (1991) The development and concurrent validity of the procrastination scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement , 51 473 - 480.
Procrastination scale Each item will have one of the following responses: Enter the response which BEST describes you in the given situation. A. That's me for sure! B. That's my tendency. C. That's not my tendency. D. That's not me for sure! Please enter the response on the answer sheet provided. Please do not mark on the scale itself. Thank you!! 1. I needlessly delay finishing jobs, even though they are important. 2. I postpone starting in on things I don't like to do. 3. When I have a deadline, I wait until the last minute. 4. I delay making tough decisions. 5. I stall on igniting new activities. 6. I am on time for appointments. 7. I keep putting off improving my work habits. 8. I get right to work, even on life's unpleasant chores. 9. I manage to find an excuse for not doing something. 10.I avoid doing those things which I expect to do poorly. 11. I put all the necessary time into even boring tasks, like studying. 12. When I get tired of an unpleasant job, I stop. 13. I believe in "keeping my nose to the grindstone." 14. When something is not worth the trouble, I stop. 15. I believe that things I do not like doing should not exist. 16. I consider people who make me do unfair and difficult things to be rotten. 17. When it counts, I can manage to even enjoy studying. 18. I am an incurable time waster. 19. I feel it is my absolute right to have other people treat me fairly. 20. I believe that other people don't have the right to give me deadlines. 21. Studying makes me feel entirely miserable. 22. I am a time waster now, and I can't seem to do anything about it. 23. When something is too tough to tackle, I believe in postponing it. 24. I promise myself I'll do something and then drag my feet. 25. Whenever I make a plan of action, I follow it. 26. I wish I could find an easy way to get myself moving. 27. When I have trouble with a task, it's usually my fault. 28. Even though I hate myself if I don't get started, it doesn't get me moving. 29. I always finish important jobs, with time to spare. 30. I look for a loophole or shortcut to get through a tough task. 31.When I'm done with my work, I check it over. 32. I get stuck in neutral even though I know how important it to get started. 33. I never met a job I couldn't lick. 34. Putting off until tomorrow is no the way I do it. 35. I feel work burns me out. 36. What grade are you in? A. Freshman in H.S. B. Sophomore in H.S. C. Freshman in coll. D. Sophomore in Coll. 37.What sex are you? A. Male B. Female 38. What school do you go to? A. Wathena H.S. B. Lafayette H.S. C. Highland Community College D. MWSU