An Overview of William Wycherley And The Country Wife From Restoration England to the Mid-Eighteenth Century: With Inclusive Costume History from 1675 through 1753 By Clarissa J. Hirner William Wycherley was renowned in the England of the Restoration as one of the foremost 'Dramatick Poets' of his day. He is said to have been born in 1641 in the village of Clive near Shrewsbury, Shropshire ("William Wycherley"). However, there is some debate over his actual date and place of birth due to some "evidence that Wycherley was baptized in Whitchurch, Hampshire, according to baptismal records there […], in April 1641, rather than May […]" (McCarthy xi). Wycherley's childhood was colored by the atmosphere of Civil War in his native England, and the forced exile of his future King and patron, Charles II in 1646. Raised in a Royalist household, Wycherley was sent by his father to France in 1656 to "continue his education and learn the graces of a gentleman in a cultured, aristocratic society" (Person, vol. 8: 376). Like his future benefactor ten years before him, Wycherley would spend his adolescent years in tutelage under the influence of the French Court of Louis XIV, first cousin to Charles II. It is doubtful, however, that Wycherley and his future King encountered one another in France, since Charles had left the protection of the French Court in the summer of 1653 at the request of Cardinal Mazarin, the Papal advisor to the young King Louis (Fraser 44, 136). During his time in France Wycherley converted to Roman Catholicism, most likely due to the influence of a Catholic France on his education during these early formative years. Wycherley returned to England in 1660, coinciding with the imminent Restoration of Charles II to the Throne by the House of Commons in May of that year (Fraser 173-181). After his return, Wycherley studied the law briefly "at the Inner Temple, one of the Inns of Court in London" ("William Wycherley"). He subsequently entered Queen's College, Oxford where "he studied philosophy without taking a degree and reconverted to Protestantism" (Person, vol. 8: 376). Although he returned to the study of law for a short period, he lost interest in this pursuit fairly quickly. During this time Wycherley would develop a fascination for London society which would be reflected in his later dramatic works. Very little is known about Wycherley's activities after his abandonment of the study of law. He is said to have been a frequent visitor of the playhouses and Whitehall, as well as other places popular to London society ("William Wycherley"). He may also have held minor positions in government offices, and is widely believed to have done military service, participating in a naval battle against the Dutch (Person, vol. 8: 376). In any case, Wycherley would eventually "set out on his chosen professional career as (a) playwright (McCarthy xii). His career, however, would be short-lived. He would write only four plays before contracting a debilitating illness, "probably encephalitis," in 1678 ("William Wycherley"). The disease left him incapacitated and plagued with reoccurring memory lapses in his later years (Person, vol. 8: 376.) Prior to this event, Wycherley wrote and produced his first play Love in a Wood (or St. James Park.) It was performed at the Theatre Royal in London, in 1671. The play was hugely successful, attracting the notice and approval of London society, most notably, Barbara Villiers Palmer, Duchess of Richmond, the favored mistress of Charles II. Her favor gained Wycherley the attention of his sovereign, and the Peers at Court. (The Duchess would take Wycherley as her lover in her later years (Fraser 209), adding to his notoriety in London society.) Due to the Duchess' influence and his own personal charm and good-natured demeanor, Wycherley quickly became a favourite at Court. Through this entrée Wycherley soon became a member of the inner circle known as 'the Wits.' This small group "included John Wilmont, the second Earl of Rochester, Henry Jermyn, Lord Buckhurst, John Sheffield, Earl of Mulgrave, Henry Killigrew, Sir Charles Sedley, and the playwrights Wycherley and Etherage, as well as Buckingham," (Charles' Prime Minister and, former childhood friend and schoolroom partner in exile) (Fraser 281, 49). Charles II would indulge himself with the company of this group of high-spirited gentlemen, who would entertain him by diverting "themselves at times with poetry, plays and literature in general, with sardonic comment on everything couched, very often in scabrous language. It was to the Wits that much of the abundance of Restoration drama was owed" (Fraser 281-282). Even Buckingham tried his hand at playwriting with "The Rehearsal: an attack, full of humorous ingenuity, on Dryden and heroic drama in general (Fraser 282). During the height of his popularity at Court, and with the full support of his contemporaries, the Wits, Wycherley would write and produce his remaining three plays. The most notable and popular of these, The Country Wife was first seen in January of 1675. Although its initial reception by audiences is basically unknown, this play based on Moli`ere's Ecole des Femmes, (or School for Married Women,) would be "deemed the bawdiest play in an age notorious for its licentiousness" (Person, vol. 8: 377). Apparently, the play was found to be "offensive to some of 'the Ladies' of the audience" (McCarthy xii). Finding the aforementioned 'Ladies ' to be hypocritical, Wycherley responded in his next play, The Plain-Dealer (drawn from Moli`ere's The Misanthrope,) "with a sharp prefatory note addressed to a well-known madam, Mrs. Bennett, who would certainly be incapable of prudery or hypocrisy, and with a scene about the indecency of The Country Wife" (McCarthy xii-xiii). It should be noted that Wycherley's first two works, Love in a Wood and The Gentleman-Dancing Master were borrowed from another French playwright, Caldero'n. The influence of French comedy and, most especially, Moli`ere, often referred to as the 'Father of the French Comedy of Manners' in dramatic circles, on Wycherley and his contemporaries in the English School of Comedy of Manners is evident. This is of no great surprise, given the fact that Charles II brought the popular fashion of French society back to England with him when he returned to the office of his Stuart birthright. The Restoration period is notorious for its atmosphere of social license due to "the true keynote of the King's Court (which) was laxity" (Fraser 281). Given this atmosphere, the popularity of The Country Wife flourished as an uproarious comedy in the late seventeenth century. Literature in this period was "renowned for its sophisticated urbanity and licentious wit. Wycherley's plays are replete with wit, a quality very highly prized during the Restoration, by which was meant not just humor or irony, but a keenness of perception that recognized the relationship between seemingly dissimilar things, a discernment of and penetration to the heart of the matter--all often expressed in elaborately fanciful similes" (Person, vol. 8: 377). Wycherley dealt candidly with the topic of sexual behavior in his contemporary society, especially in The Country Wife. He apparently delighted in creating social commentary on the accepted social mores of the age. "'Is it not a frank age?' asked the young blade Sparkish in The Country Wife, 'And I am a frank person'" (Fraser 283). With the impending entrance of Sparkish in Act I, we hear the author's voice, 'your noisy pert rogue of a wit, the greatest fop, dullest ass, and worst company, as you shall see; for here he comes,' announces Horner. Through Sparkish, Wycherley apparently pokes fun at his contemporaries in the Court of Charles II. 'No, sir, a wit to me is the greatest title in the world,' retorts Sparkish, 'I think wit as necessary at dinner as a glass of good wine, and I would no more miss seeing a play the first day, than I would miss sitting in the wits' row.' This seeming paradox, between the commentary of Horner, the antihero of the play, and the responses of Sparkish, the oft regarded fool, is a prime example of the question which stirs the critical debate over Wycherley's true intent in dramatic circles even unto the present day: whether or not Wycherley's work should be classified as satire or farce? Hence, the reason that "Wycherly's work has frequently been deemed the most thematically serious of Restoration comedies" (McCarthy 377). Although his plays conform to the standard conventions of the Restoration School of the Comedy of Manners, (i.e. the elements of sexual intrigue and mistaken identity,) critic scholars of the twentieth-century "hold that beyond the witty banter and sexual innuendo of Wycherley's work lies the eternal theme of the individual in conflict with society, a theme expressed most successfully and cogently through Horner of The Country-Wife" (Person, vol. 8: 377). Wycherley was held in high regard by his contemporaries, not only for his gentility and character, but even more importantly for the quality of his work (McCarthy xiii). His renown, and the popularity of The Country Wife, would carry through the end of the seventeenth century, despite the problems that would develop in his personal life after 1678. Upon returning to England after a recuperative stay at a health resort in France, financed by his benefactor, the King, Wycherley made the disastrous choice to secretly marry Lady Laetitia-Isabella, Countess of Drogheda in 1679. Wycherley fell out of favor with his former patron due to his choice to marry the Countess rather than take the post of tutor to Charles' seven-year-old son, the Duke of Richmond, by Louise de Ke'roualle, Duchess of Portsmouth. The marriage resulted in financial ruin for Wycherley. He would be plagued by lawsuits over his wife's fortune even after her death in 1681 ("William Wycherley). He would attempt to gain favor and financial support from his former peers by writing poetry, the quality of which came no where near that of his earlier dramatic work He was sent to Newgate for debt in 1682, and was subsequently transferred to Fleet Prison where he would remain until after the death of Charles II on February 6, 1685. He would receive a reprieve shortly thereafter from King James II, Charles' younger brother and heir to the Throne. After seeing and thoroughly enjoying a performance of The Plain-Dealer, King James inquired after the playwright, and finding he was imprisoned, promptly released Wycherley, settled his debts and gave him a pension. He lost the pension in 1688, however, and continued to be plagued by debt throughout his remaining years. Wycherley would marry again in 1715, most likely for financial reasons, taking as his bride, the younger Elizabeth Jackson, said to be his cousin's mistress. He died seven days later, a Catholic, having reconverted in his later years. He is buried at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, in London. (McCarthy 377). The popularity of The Country Wife, as well as the controversy surrounding the play, would survive Wycherley well into the mid-eighteenth century. The debate over "the rampant licentiousness and impiety of Restoration drama (Person, vol.6: 196), including Wycherley's last two dramatic works, had been brought to the forefront in 1698, by James Collier in his critical discourse A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage. At that time the "public reaction was immediate, fierce, and long-lived. Among many others, John Dryden, William Congreve, Thomas D'Urfey, and John Vanbrugh--all dramatists censured by Collier --published replies" (Person, vol. 6: 197). Collier, an English clergyman, was "a ruthless critic of the corruptions he saw in the theater of his age" (Person, vol. 6: 196). Although he "found Wycherley mainly immune to blame or untouchable because of his satiric exposure of vice" (McCarthy xiv); Collier stated that "(he was) sorry the Author should stoop his Wit thus Low, and use his Understanding so unkindly" when referring to the characters of Pinchwife, Horner, and Lady Fidget in The Country Wife (Person, vol. 6: 380). Subsequently, In 1704: A LETTER in Answer to some Queries Relating to the Irregularities Charged Upon the Stage printed with Mr. Collier's Dissuasive for the Play House--London Wonders why writers like Wycherley, "a Wit, certainly of the first Magnitude, And with so great a Fund of Sense," did not answer Collier, but then adds that Wycherly was "a Person of too much judgement to engage in the Quarrel" (McCarthy 2). The true reason for Wycherley's lack of participation in the fray may very well have been, however, his failing health, marked by his problems with memory, and his preoccupation with his straightened circumstances due to his problems with debt. The unfortunate Wycherley had once been lauded by Gerard Langbaine in 1691 "amongst the Poets of the First Rank," and "second only to Ben Jonson among the English comic writers" (McCarthy 1, xiv). But due to Collier's criticism, the controversy over his work would continue, with "repercussions created by the alleged immorality of The Country Wife gradually (increasing into) the following decade" (McCarthy xiv). His reputation as a dramatist would again be upheld in 1709. In an essay reviewing a previous evening's performance of The Country Wife, Sir Richard Steele stated that "the Poet (William Wycherley), on many Occasions, where the Propriety of the character of the Person speaking will admit of it, insinuates, That there is no Defense against Vice, but the Contempt of it" (Person, vol. 6: 381). The play was not, therefore, immediately affected by Collier, or any further negative response to Restoration drama at the turn of the century. It's popularity would continue, outdoing "any of Sir George Etherage's and a close second to William Congreve's major comedies" (McCarthy xiv). It had a fairly steady run on stage, and reached its height of popularity between 1725 and 1729, during which time it was stage thirty-three times between two theaters. It's somewhat steady popularity continued until 1753, when it appeared on the London stage for the last time before fading into relative obscurity. By that time, "changing social and sexual mores rendered it unacceptable to the public" (Person, vol. 8: 377). Throughout its initial history, from its inception in 1675 through the demise of its contemporary popularity in 1753, Wycherley's The Country Wife was more than likely performed in costume which reflected the popular fashion of the day. The descriptions on the following pages (with accompanying illustrations: C-1 through C-12) provide a visual history of costume and fashion from the Restoration period through the early Georgian period. C-1 This illustration of Charles II and his lady, accurately represents the fashion favored by the monarch and his Court in 1675. Charles is depicted wearing a short-sleeved, knee-length coat with white cravat. The bloused sleeves of his undershirt are exposed beneath the lacy, cuffed sleeves of his coat. He is wearing short, full breeches with ribbon garters tied above the knee-- which replaced the 'petticoat' style from the previous decade. His lady is depicted wearing a gown with the long, narrow-pointed bodice and circular neckline, which was favored in the fashion of that period. The puffy undersleeves extend below the sleeves of the gown, covering the elbow, and mimicking those worn by the men (Hill 106-7). C-2 The French influence on fashion in the English Court of the Restoration is evident in paintings from the period. This portrait of Louis XIV, first cousin to Charles II, at the Establishment of the Academy of Science and Foundation of the Observatory 1667 (detail by Henri Testelin; Versailles,) illustrates the similarity between the dress of both the King of France, and the King of England (Myers, France: Frontispiece).C-3 This gown of Silver Tissue can be found on the Homepage of the Museum of Costume in Bath, England. (No. 1 on The Tour,) this is the earliest complete costume in their collection. In the 1660's, this example from the Restoration was constructed of fine cream silk woven with a silver thread and trimmed in cream parchment lace. It was most likely worn at Court and for special events.C-4 The illustration on the right, is dated in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Costume and Fashion, c. 1682 (Cassin-Scott 48), and by James Laver, as c.1683 (54, 135). However, the actual painting on the left that it is derived from, "Woman walking in the Country," by J. D. de Saint-Jean is actually c. 1675 (Boucher 262). The gown of striped Siamoise, features a tight-fitting, small-waisted bodice joined to a full gathered skirt. The short, straight sleeves ended just above the elbow and were turned and fastened just below the shoulder with a button and loop. The skirt hung to the ground, with the trained overskirt hitched up behind and at the sides. A 'headkercheif' was worn covering the coiffure and fastened beneath the chin. The mask, walking stick, parasol, and ladies' ribboned cuff were considered elegant accoutrements.C-5 Also included in The Tour on the Museum of Costume's Homepage is (No. 3) Sir Thomas Kilpatrick's coat, c. 1720. This formal knee-length coat of brown woollen cloth was embroidered in silver was worn by the aforementioned young, Scottish nobleman of Closeburgh in Fife. The embroidery, most likely done by hand, is typical of early eighteeth century Baroque taste. C-6 The differences between the portrait on the left (Cunnington 75), and the one on the right (Evans: Frontispiece), demonstrate two of the more marked changes in women's fashion between 1675 and the mid-eighteenth century. The woman on the left, painted by an Unknown artist (c.1660-1670,) is wearing a gown with the circular de'colletage, with her hair dressed in long locks falling at the side of the head known as 'heart-breakers' (Evans 150), both popular during the Restoration period. The woman on the right, "Madame Favart" by Francois H. Drouais (c. 1757,) is wearing the much deeper round de'colletage and is wearing her hair dressed to the top of her head and covered by a lace cap, which became popular around the turn the century. C-7 The Lady in Court dress, depicted in this illustration, is wearing a gown with the above mentioned de'colletage and long train attached at the shoulders, c. 1700 (Cassin-Scott; Costumes and Settings, vol. 3: 46). This style would become known as the 'Watteau-back', popularized by the French artist, Antoine Watteau in the early eighteenth century. ( See also, C-8 and C-9.)C-8 Plate 1-- Antoine Watteau: L'Enseigne de Gersaint or "Gersaint's Sign--Oil on canvas; Charlottenburg, Berlin, c. 1721 (Michel 46, 226-7). C-9 Plate 2--Ibid. C-10 Nicholas de Largillierre: "The Artist and his Family"--Oil on canvas; Paris, Louvre, c. 1656-1746 (Laclotte, 115).C-11 William Hogarth: "Captain Coram"--Oil on canvas; Thomas Coram Foundation, London, c. 1740 (Myers; British Isles, 99).C-12 Hogarth: "Marriage `a la Mode, scene ii"--Oil on canvas; London, National Gallery, c. 1743 (Garlick, 96). C-13 Pietro Longhi: "The Geography Lesson"--Oil on canvas; c. 1752 (Craske 150).Works Cited (1) Boucher, Francois. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment. New York: Abrams, 1987. Cassin-Scott, Jack. Costumes and Settings for Staging Historical Plays. Vol. 3: The Elizabethan and Restoration Period. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1979._ _ _ . The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Costume and Fashion: 1550-1920. Poole, U.K.: Blandford; New York: Sterling; Sydney: Capricorn, 1986.Craske, Matthew. Art in Europe 1700-1830: A History of the Visual Arts in an Era of Unprecedented Urban Economic Growth. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1997. Cunnington, Phyllis. Costume in Pictures. New York: Dutton Vista, 1964.Evans, Mary. Costume Throughout the Ages. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1950. Fraser, Antonia. Royal Charles: Charles II and the Restoration. New York: Knopf,1980. Garlick, Kenneth., ed. British and American Art to 1900. New York: Grolier, 1965. Vol. 6 of The Book of Art: A Pictorial Encyclopedia of Painting, Drawing, and Sculpture. 10 vols. Hill, Margaret Hamilton, and Peter A. Bucknell. The Evolution of Fashion: Pattern and Cut from 1066 to 1930. London: Batsford; New York: Drama Book, 1983. Laclotte, Michel., ed. French Art from 1350 to 1850. New York: Grolier, 1965. Vol. 5 of The Book of Art: A Pictorial Encyclopedia of Painting, Drawing, and Sculpture. 10 vols. Laver, James. Introduction. Costume Through the Ages: 1000 Illustrations. Plates by Erhard Klepper. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963. Works Cited (2)McCarthy, Eugene B. Introduction. William Wycherly: a Reference Guide. Boston: G.K. Hall,1985.Michel, Marianne Roland., ed. Watteau: An Artist of the Eighteenth Century. U.K.: Trefoil Books; Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books, 1984. The Museum of Costume (Homepage). 29 NOV 99. Bath and North East Somerset Council, 6 Aug. 1999 Myers, Bernard s. and Trewin Copplestone., eds. Art Treasures in the British Isles: Monuments, Masterpieces, Commisions, and Collections. New York: McGraw- Hill; London: Hamlyn, 1969. _ _ _. Art Treasures in France: Monuments, Masterpieces, Commissions, and Collections. New York: McGraw-Hill; London: Hamlyn, 1969. Person, James E. Jr., ed. Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800. Vols. 6, 8. Detroit: Gale Research, 1987. 51 vols. "William Wycherley." Restoration Drama (Homepage). 29 NOV 99 (wycherley.html)